
Ethnic Relations in the Baltic States
Scholarly research on ethnic relations in Estonia and Latvia: a retrospective overview
Following is a more complete bibliographic listing of sources consulted as part of the publication “Scholarly research on ethnic relations in Estonia and Latvia: a retrospective overview” published in Bradley Woodworth, Darius Staliunas and Violeta Davoliute, eds., Ethnic Relations in the Baltic States Revisited (CEU Press, 2025).
Needless to say, this list does not cover everything that has been published in English (or Estonian or Latvian) on these topics. Nor is the listing of one or another work an absolute guarantee of its quality or long-lasting relevance. But the bibliography should provide researchers starting out within this field an initial overview of essential works.
Note that the main focus of the list is on analytical scholarship that looks at trends since re-independence in the 1990s. It does not cover historical aspects of ethnic relations, including the interwar or Soviet periods.
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this refers to the frequent handwringing about potential conflict in the region during the early 1990s, but also the efforts at conflict resolution through international mediation and later conditionality
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the conditionality could be seen in two stages: the early 1990s vis-à-vis the UN, CoE, OSCE (incl. the special Missions); later, EU conditionality took over in terms of encouraging integration policies, providing supplementary funding and formal reporting during the accession process
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the conceptual-theoretical question here is often, how effective is(was) international influence and conditionality for the alleviation of ethnic tensions (something that dominated all of the post-communist region during this period)
Antane, Aina, and Boris Tsilevich. 2019. “Nation-Building and Ethnic Integration in Latvia.” In Nation Building and Ethnic Integration in Post-Soviet Societies, ed. Pål Kolstø. Routledge, 63–152.
Best, Marina. 2013. “The Ethnic Russian Minority: A Problematic Issue in the Baltic States.” Verges: Germanic & Slavic Studies in Review 2(1).
Cheskin, Ammon. 2012. “Synthesis and Conflict: Russian-Speakers’ Discursive Response to Latvia’s Nationalising State.” Europe-Asia Studies 64(2): 325–47.
Evans, Geoffrey. 1998. “Ethnic Schism and Consolidation of Post-Communist Democracies: The Case of Estonia.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 31(1): 57–74.
Ginkel, John. 2002. “Identity Construction In Latvia’s ‘Singing Revolution’: Why Inter-Ethnic Conflict Failed To Occur.” Nationalities Papers 30(3): 403–33.
Hansson, Ulf. 2002. “The Latvian Language Legislation and the Involvement of the OSCE‐HCNM: The Developments 2000–2002.” The Global Review of Ethnopolitics 2(1): 17–28.
Hughes, James. 2005. “‘Exit’ in Deeply Divided Societies: Regimes of Discrimination in Estonia and Latvia and the Potential for Russophone Migration.” Journal of Common Market Studies 43(4): 739–62.
Khrychikov, Sergey, and Hugh Miall. 2002. “Conflict Prevention in Estonia: The Role of the Electoral System.” Security Dialogue 33(2): 193–208.
Kolsto, Pal, and Boris Tsilevich. 1997. “Patterns of Nation Building and Political Integration in a Bifurcated Postcommunist State: Ethnic Aspects of Parliamentary Elections in Latvia.” East European Politics and Societies 11(2): 366–92.
Lokk, Reigo. 2015. “Sepistades Natsiooni: Taasiseseisvunud Eesti Etnopoliitilised Konfliktid.” Doctoral dissertation. University of Tartu.
Rudenshiold, Eric Cooke. 1992. “Ethnic Dimensions in Contemporary Latvian Politics: Focusing Forces for Change.” Soviet Studies 44(4): 609(31).
Schulze, Jennie L. 2018. Strategic Frames: Europe, Russia, and Minority Inclusion in Estonia and Latvia. University of Pittsburgh Press.
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this relates directly to studies of HCNM, CoE influence as well as later EU conditionality
Agarin, Timofey, and Ada-Charlotte Regelmann. 2012. “Which Is the Only Game in Town? Minority Rights Issues in Estonia and Slovakia During and after EU Accession: Perspectives on European Politics and Society.” Perspectives on European Politics and Society 13(4): 443–61.
Dorodnova, Jekaterina. 2003. “Challenging Ethnic Democracy: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commisioner on National Minorities to Latvia, 1993-2001.” Center for OSCE Research Working Paper 9.
Duina, Francesco, and Carlo Miani. "Fitting in the Baltics: national identity, minorities and compliance with EU accession requirements in Lithuania and Latvia." Comparative European Politics 13 (2015): 535-552.
Feldman, Gregory. 2003. “Stabilizing Estonia: The International Dimension of State Security and Ethnic Integration Policy.” Demokratizatsiya 11(4): 555–72.
Feldman, Merje. 2001. “European Integration and the Discourse of National Identity in Estonia.” National Identities 3(1): 5–21.
Galbreath, David J. 2006a. “European Integration through Democratic Conditionality: Latvia in the Context of Minority Rights.” Journal of Contemporary European Studies 14(1): 69–87.
Galbreath, David J. 2006b. “From Nationalism to Nation-Building: Latvian Politics and Minority Policy.” Nationalities Papers 34(4): 383–406.
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle, and Sue Wright. 2013. “Language, Nation and Citizenship: Contrast, Conflict and Convergence in Estonia’s Debate with the International Community.” Nationalities Papers 41(2): 240–58.
Kelley, Judith. 2004. Ethnic Politics in Europe: The Power of Norms and Incentives. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lerhis, Ainārs. 2007. Ārvalstu Ietekme Uz Sabiedrības Etniskās Integrācijas Procesu Latvijā. Austrumeiropas Politisko Petījumu centrs.
Petsinis, Vassilis. 2016. “Ethnic Relations, the EU, and Geopolitical Implications: The Cases of Estonia and Croatia.” Ethnopolitics 15(2): 230–44.
Pettai, Vello, and Kristina Kallas. 2009. “Estonia: Conditionality in a Legal Straightjacket.” In Minority Rights in Central and Eastern Europe: A Failure of Conditionality?, ed. Bernd Rechel. London: Routledge, 104–18.
Sarv, Margit. 2002. “Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001.” Center for OSCE Research Working Paper 7.
Schulze, Jennie L. 2010. “Estonia Caught between East and West: EU Conditionality, Russia’s Activism and Minority Integration.” Nationalities Papers 38(3): 361–92.
Sjöstedt, Roxanna. 2018. “Beyond Compliance: Recognition, Solidarity and Minority Rights in Post-Accession Estonia.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 24(2): 158–80.
Solska, Magdalena. 2013. “Citizenship, Collective Identity and the International Impact on Integration Policy in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.” Europe-Asia Studies 63(6): 165–84.
Steen, Anton. 2006. “Accessioning Liberal Compliance? Baltic Elites and Ethnic Politics under New International Conditions.” International Journal of Minority and Group Rights 13(2): 187–207.
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a somewhat parallel topic to the previous one, but it looks at the formal security dimension to ethnic relations as well as the securitization of Russian-speakers and interpretations of them as fifth-columnists
Kirch, Marika, and Aksel Kirch. 1995. “Search for Security in Estonia: New Identity Structure.” Security Dialogue 26(4): 439–48.
Kuczyńska-Zonik, Aleksandra. 2017. “The Securitization of National Minorities in the Baltic States.” Baltic Journal of Law and Politics 10(2): 26–45.
Lind, Maibritt. 2003. “Is the Russo-Phone Minority a Structural Security Threat to the Estonian State?” Baltic Defence Review 9(1).
Merritt, Martha. 2000. “A Geopolitics of Identity: Drawing the Line between Russia and Estonia.” Nationalities Papers 28(2): 243–62.
Noreen, Erik, and Roxanna Sjöstedt. 2004. “Estonian Identity Formations and Threat Framing in the Post-Cold War Era.” Journal of Peace Research 41(6): 733–50.
Simonsen, Sven Gunnar. 2001. “Compatriot Games: Explaining the ‘diaspora Linkage’ in Russia’s Military Withdrawal from the Baltic States.” Europe-Asia Studies 53(5): 771–91.
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this theme is more synthetic in terms of pulling together security, conflict and conditionality around the specific triadic nexus model developed by Rogers Brubaker
Aalto, Pami. 2003. “Revisiting the Security/Identity Puzzle in Russo-Estonian Relations.” Journal of Peace Research 40(5): 573–91.
Cheskin, Ammon, and Angela Kachuyevski. 2019. “The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Post-Soviet Space: Language, Politics and Identity.” Europe-Asia Studies 71(1): 1–23.
Kallas, Kristina. 2016. “Revisiting the Triadic Nexus: An Analysis of the Ethnopolitical Interplay between Estonia, Russia and Estonian Russians.” PhD dissertation. University of Tartu.
Pettai, Vello. 2006. “Explaining Ethnic Politics in the Baltic States: Reviewing the Triadic Nexus Model.” Journal of Baltic Studies 37(1): 124–36.
Schulze, Jennie L. 2017. “Does Russia Matter? European Institutions, Strategic Framing, and the Case of Stateless Children in Estonia and Latvia.” Problems of Post-Communism 64(5): 257–75.
Smith, Graham. 1999. “Transnational Politics and the Politics of the Russian Diaspora.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 22(3): 500–523.
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because ethnic relations were so thoroughly transformed by citizenship policy, a whole range of studies has focused purely on the effects of this, including how the policies came about, the problems of statelessness and the travails of non-citizens, but also legal analyses of the legitimacy of such a policy
Antane, Aina, and Boris Tsilevich. 1998. “The Problem of Citizenship in Latvia’.”
Carpinelli, Cristina. 2019. “The Citizenship Policies of the Baltic States within the EU Framework on Minority Rights.” Polish Political Science Yearbook 48(2): 193–221.
Cianetti, Licia. 2014a. “Granting Local Voting Rights to Non-Citizens in Estonia and Latvia: The Conundrum of Minority Representation in Two Divided Democracies.” JEMIE 13: 86.
Fein, Lisa C, and Jeremy B Straughn. 2014. “How Citizenship Matters: Narratives of Stateless and Citizenship Choice in Estonia.” Citizenship Studies 18(6–7): 690–706.
Feldman, Gregory. 2005. “Culture, State, and Security in Europe: The Case of Citizenship and Integration Policy in Estonia.” American Ethnologist 32: 676–94.
Feldman, Gregory. 2008. “The Trap of Abstract Space: Recomposing Russian-Speaking Immigrants in Post-Soviet Estonia.” Anthropological Quarterly: 311–42.
Gelažis, Nida M. 2004. “The European Union and the Statelessness Problem in the Baltic States.” Eur. J. Migration & L. 6: 225.
Gromilova, Anna. 2015. “Statelessness: Challenging the ‘Europeanness’ in the Baltics.” Revista de Științe Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques (47): 268–82.
Järve, Priit. 2007. “Estonian Citizenship: Between Ethnic Preferences and Democratic Obligations.” In Citizenship Policies in the New Europe, eds. Rainer Bauböck, Bernhard Perchinig, and Wiebke Sievers. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 43–62.
Järve, Priit, and Vadim Poleshchuk. 2009. “EUDO Citizenship Observatory.” Country Report: Estonia (Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, 2013) p 1.
Kask, Peet. 1994. “National Radicalization in Estonia: Legislation on Citizenship and Related Issues.” Nationalities Papers 22(2): 379–91.
Krūma, Kristīne. 2009. “Checks and Balances in Latvian Nationality Policies: National Agendas and International Frameworks.” In Citizenship Policies in the New Europe, eds. Rainer Bauböck, Bernhard Perchinig, and Wiebke Sievers. , 67–96.
Skolnick, Joanne. 1996. “Grappling with the Legacy of Soviet Rule: Citizenship and Human Rights in the Baltic States.” University of Toronto Faculty of Law Review 54(2): 387–417.
Šulmane, Ilze, and Sergejs Kruks. “Pilsonības Problēmas Presē.” In Latvijas Mediju Analīze (Daudzveidība III),.
Visek, Richard C. 1997. “Creating the Ethnic Electorate through Legal Restorationism: Citizenship Rights in Estonia.” Harvard International Law Journal 38(2): 315–73.
Zabrodskaja, Anastassia. 2009. “Language Testing in the Context of Citizenship and Asylum: The Case of Estonia.” Language Assessment Quarterly 6(1): 61–70.
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drawing on the works of the Israeli sociologist Sammy Smooha, many scholars began examining ethnic relations in Estonia and Latvia through the prism of ‘ethnic democracy’
Agarin, Timofey. 2016. “Extending the Concept of Ethnocracy: Exploring the Debate in the Baltic Context.” Cosmopolitan Civil Societies: An Interdisciplinary Journal 8(3): 81–99.
Commercio, Michele E. 2008. “Systems of Partial Control: Ethnic Dynamics in Post-Soviet Estonia and Latvia.” Studies in Comparative International Development 43(1): 81–100.
Pettai, Vello, and Klara Hallik. 2002. “Understanding Processes of Ethnic Control: Segmentation, Dependency and Cooptation in Post-Communist Estonia.” Nations and Nationalism 8(4): 505–29.
Smooha, Sammy, and Priit Järve. 2005. The Fate of Ethnic Democracy in Post-Communist Europe. Budapest: Local Government and Public Service Reform Initiative and Open Society Institute.
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even though citizenship undercut a lot of minority political participation, there has still been analysis of minority political participation, attitudes and party politics
Agarin, Timofey. 2013. “Resident Aliens? Explaining Minority Disaffection with Democratic Politics in the Baltic States.” Ethnopolitics 12(4): 331–51.
Agarin, Timofey, and Ryo Nakai. 2021. “Political Dejection in a Divided Society: A Challenge for Latvia’s Democracy?” Journal of Baltic Studies 52(4): 521–46.
Chojnicka, Joanna. 2013. “Nazis vs. Occupants: The Language of Ethnic Conflict in Latvian Parliamentary Debates.” Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict 1(2): 225–55.
Duvold, Kjetil, and Sten Berglund. 2014. “Democracy between Ethnos and Demos: Territorial Identification and Political Support in the Baltic States.” East European Politics and Societies 28(2): 341–65.
Eihmanis, Edgars. 2019. “Latvia – An Ever-Wider Gap: The Ethnic Divide in Latvian Party Politics.” In European Party Politics in Times of Crisis, eds. Swen Hutter and Hanspeter Kriesi. Cambridge: Cambrdge University Press, 236–58.
Hansen, Holley E. 2009. “Ethnic Voting and Representation: Minority Russians in Post-Soviet States.”
Higashijima, Masaaki, and Ryo Nakai. 2016. “Elections, Ethnic Parties, and Ethnic Identification in New Democracies: Evidence from the Baltic States.” Studies in Comparative International Development 51(2): 124–46.
Ishiyama, John T. 1999. “Representational Mechanism and Ethnopolitics: Evidence from Transitional Demoracies in Eastern Europe.” East European Quarterly Summer 33(2): 251.
Kuklys, Mindaugas. 2008. Gender and Ethnic Representation in the Baltic Legislatures: Latvia and Lithuania, 1990-2006.
Nakai, Ryo. 2014. “The Influence of Party Competition on Minority Politics: A Comparison of Latvia and Estonia.” JEMIE 13: 57.
Vebers, Elmārs, Leo Dribins, Ēriks Jēkabsons, Vladislavs Volkovs, and Apine, Ilga. 2005. Latvijas Nacionālo Minoritāšu Prasības Etniskās Identitātes Saglabāšanas Garantēšanai Saistībā Ar Eiropas Padomes Vispārējo Konvenciju Par Nacionālo Minoritāšu Aizsardzību.
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This was a strong leitmotif for a certain period of time, and still remains a theme here and there, although in practical terms and as a policy cultural autonomy has been a failed promise; the topic includes comparisons to the inter-war period and applications for today
Aidarov, Aleksandr, and Wolfgang Drechsler. 2013. “Estonian Russification of Non-Russian Ethnic Minorities in Estonia? A Policy Analysis.” Trames 17(2): 103–28.
Poleshchuk, Vadim. 2015. “Russian National Cultural Autonomy in Estonia.” In Managing Diversity through Non-Territorial Autonomy: Assessing Advantages, Deficiencies, and Risks, eds. Tove Malloy, Alexander Osipov, and Balazs Vizi. Oxford University Press, 229–48.
Smith, David. 2001. Cultural Autonomy in Estonia: A Relevant Paradigm for the Post-Soviet Era? Birmingham, UK: ‘Fuzzy Statehood and European Integration.’
Smith, David J. 1999. “Retracing Estonia’s Russians: Mikhail Kurchinskii and Interwar Cultural Autonomy.” Nationalities Papers 27(3): 455–74.
Smith, David James, and John Hiden. 2012. Ethnic Diversity and the Nation State: National Cultural Autonomy Revisited. Routledge.
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this is arguably one of the big thematic foci that emerges in the late 1990s as soon as EE and LV begin to adopt more formal integration policies
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there are different foci in terms of analyzing the policy framework itself or its effects on things like language knowledge, attitudes or identities
Agarin, Timofey. 2010. A Cat’s Lick: Democratisation and Minority Communities in the Post-Soviet Baltic. Rodopi.
Cheskin, Ammon. 2015. “Identity and Integration of Russian Speakers in the Baltic States: A Framework for Analysis.” Ethnopolitics 14(1): 72–93.
Cianetti, Licia. 2015. “Integrating Minorities in Times of Crisis: Issues of Displacement in the Estonian and Latvian Integration Programs.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 21(2): 191–212.
Cianetti, Licia. 2019. The Quality of Divided Democracies: Minority Inclusion, Exclusion, and Representation in the New Europe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ekmanis, Indra. "Why isn’t Latvia the “next” Crimea? Reconsidering ethnic integration." Orbis 64, no. 3 (2020): 489-500.
Golubeva, Maria, ed. 2010b. Inclusion Unaffordable? The Uncertain Fate of Integration Policies in Europe. Riga: Providus.
Indāns, Ivars, and Valts Kalniņš. 2001. Sabiedrības Integrācijas Institucionālās Politikas Analīze. Riga: Latvijas Ārpolitikas institūts.
Muižnieks, Nils. 2010. How Integrated Is Latvian Society? An Audit of Achievements, Failures and Challenges. University of Latvia Press.
Muižnieks, Nils R. 2006. Latvian-Russian Relations: Domestic and International Dimensions. Riga: LU Akademiskais apgads.
Muižnieks, Nils, Juris Rozenvalds, and Ieva Birka. 2013. “Ethnicity and Social Cohesion in the Post-Soviet Baltic States.” Patterns of Prejudice 47(3): 288–308.
Silvan, Kristiina. 2015. “Group Cohesion and Minority Bargaining: The Case of Estonian and Latvian Russian-Speakers After 2004.”
Vetik, Raivo, and Jelena Helemäe. 2011. The Russian Second Generation in Tallinn and Kohtla-Järve: The TIES Study in Estonia. Amsterdam University Press.
Zepa, Brigita. 2003. “Citizenship, Official Language, Bilingual Education in Latvia: Public Policy in the Last 10 Years.” In The Baltic States: Looking at Small Societies on Europe’s Margin, eds. Christian Giordano, Alina Žvinklienè, and Daniel Henseler. Freiburg: Studia ethnographica Friburgensia, 83–97.
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whilst often not directly linked to the study of integration, many scholars have nonetheless traced different trends in public perceptions, attitudes, and sentiments about inter-ethnic relations
Birka, Ieva. 2016. “Expressed Attachment to Russia and Social Integration: The Case of Young Russian Speakers in Latvia, 2004–2010.” Journal of Baltic Studies 47(2): 219–38.
Kaprāns, Mārtiņš, and Inta Mieriņa. 2019. “Minority Reconsidered: Towards a Typology of Latvia’s Russophone Identity.” Europe-Asia Studies 71(1).
Leino, Mare, Marika Veisson, Viive-Riina Ruus, Ene-Silvia Sarv, Loone Ots, and Anneli Veisson. 2006. “New Identity of Russian Speaking Children in Estonian Society.” Social Work & Society 4(1): 160–75.
Mikkel, Evald. 1999. “The Opinion Proximity of Russians and Estonians in Estonia during the Early 1990s.” Journal of Baltic Studies 30(2): 162–79.
Proos, Ivi, and Iris Pettai. 2007. Rahvussuhted Ja Integratsiooni Perspektiivid Eestis: Sotsioloogilise Uurimuse Materjalid. Tallinn: Eesti Avatud Ühiskonna Instituut.
SKDS. 2006. Sabiedribas Integracijas Aktualakie Aspekti. Riga: SKDS.
Vihalemm, Triin, and Veronika Kalmus. 2009. “Cultural Differentiation of the Russian Minority.” Journal of Baltic Studies 40(1): 95–119.
Zepa, Brigita. 2001. Jaunpilsoņu Aptauja. Riga: Baltijas sociālo zinātņu institūts.
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alongside public opinion, researchers have also often looked at specific sociological differences across the majority and minority communities; these studies are more explicitly comparative between the groups
Kalmus, Veronika. 2003. “‘Is Interethnic Integration Possible in Estonia?’: Ethno-Political Discourse of Two Ethnic Groups.” Discourse & Society 14(6): 667–97.
Kalmus, Veronika, Margit Keller, and Maie Kiisel. 2009. “Emerging Consumer Types in a Transition Culture: Consumption Patterns of Generational And Ethnic Groups in Estonia.” Journal of Baltic Studies 40(1): 53–74.
Korts, Külliki. 2010. “Inter-Ethnic Attitudes and Contacts between Ethnic Groups in Estonia.” In Estonia’s Transition to the EU, eds. Marju Lauristin and Peeter Vihalemm. Routledge, 116–32.
Nimmerfeldt, Gerli. 2012. “Ethnic and Civic Identities of Russian Youth in Estonia.” In Nation-Building in the Context of Post-Communist Transformation and Globalization. The Case of Estonia, ed. Raivo Vetik. , 253–82.
Polese, Abel, Oleksandra Seliverstova, Ammon Cheskin, and Philippe Perchoc. 2017. “Consommation, Identité et Intégration En Estonie et En Lettonie.” Hermès, La Revue 77(1): 141–50.
Schulze, Jennie L. 2014. “The Ethnic Participation Gap: Comparing Second Generation Russian Youth and Estonian Youth.” JEMIE 13: 19.
Toots, Anu, and Tõnu Idnurm. 2012. “Does the Context Matter? Attitudes towards Cosmopolitanism among Russian-Speaking Students in Estonia, Latvia and the Russian Federation.” Journal of Baltic Studies 43(1): 117–34.
Van Ham, Maarten, and Tiit Tammaru. “Ethnic minority–majority unions in Estonia.” European Journal of Population= Revue Europeenne de Demographie 27, no. 3 (2011): 313.
Vihalemm, Triin, Jānis Juzefovičs, and Marianne Leppik. 2021. “Identity and Media-Use Strategies of the Estonian and Latvian Russian-Speaking Populations amid Political Crisis.” In The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Post-Soviet Space, Routledge, 48–70.
Vöörmann, Rein, and Jelena Helemäe. 2003. “Ethnic Relations in Estonia’s Post-Soviet Business Community.” Ethnicities 3(4): 509–30.
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a final extension from classical sociological studies
Jašina-Schäfer, Alina, and Ammon Cheskin. 2020. “Horizontal Citizenship in Estonia: Russian Speakers in the Borderland City of Narva.” Citizenship studies 24(1): 93–110.
Polese, Abel, Oleksandra Seliverstova, Tanel Kerikmae, and Ammon Cheskin. 2020. “National Identity for Breakfast: Food Consumption and the Everyday Construction of National Narratives in Estonia.” Nationalities Papers 48(6): 1015–35.
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looking more narrowly at certain policy realms, studies of language have dealt both with the formalities of language policy as well as sociolinguistic shifts over time
Alijeva, Lilija. 2017. “Left behind? A Critical Study of the Russian-Speaking Minority Rights to Citizenship and Language in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Lessons from Nationalising Language Policies.” international journal on minority and group rights 24(4): 484–536.
Djačkova, Svetlana. 2003. Latvian Language Proficiency and the Integration of Society. Riga: Center for Public Policy Providus.
Ehala, Martin. 2014. “Russian-Speakers in the Baltic Countries: Language Use and Identity.” In Negotiating Linguistic Identity: Language and Belonging in Europe, eds. Virve-Anneli Vihman and Kristiina Praakli. Peter Lang, 89–110.
Ehala, Martin, and Kadri Koreinik. 2021. “Patterns of Individual Multilingualism in Estonia.” Journal of Baltic Studies 52(1): 85–102.
Hogan-Brun, Gabrielle. 2005. “The Baltic Republics and Language Ideological Debates Surrounding European Union Accession.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 26(5): 367–77.
Lazdiņa, Sanita, and Heiko F Marten. 2018. Multilingualism in the Baltic States: Societal Discourses and Contact Phenomena. Springer.
Ozolins, Uldis. 1999. “Between Russian and European Hegemony: Current Language Policy in the Baltic States.” Current Issues in Language & Society 6(1): 6–47.
Ozolins, Uldis. 2003. “The Impact of European Accession upon Language Policy in the Baltic States.” Language Policy 2(3): 217–38.
Romanov, Artemi. 2000. “The Russian Diaspora in Latvia and Estonia: Predicting Language Outcomes.” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 21(1): 58–71.
Schmid, Carol. 2008. “Ethnicity and Language Tensions in Latvia.” Language Policy 7(1): 3–19.
Tsilevich, Boris. 2001. “Development of the Language Legislation in the Baltic States.” International Journal on Multicultural Societies 3(2): 137–54.
Verschik, Anna. 2005. “The Language Situation in Estonia.” Journal of Baltic Studies 36(3): 283–316.
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education reform has been a big issue that has not only attempted to shift sociolinguistics, but it has also led to protests and political tension
Austers, Ivars, Maria Golubeva, Maksims Kovalenko, and Ieva Strode. 2006. Daudzveidība Ienāk Latviešu Skolās. Riga: Providus.
Batelaan, Pieter. 2002. “Bilingual Education: The Case of Latvia from a Comparative Perspective.” Intercultural Education 13(4): 359–74.
Cianetti, Licia. 2014b. “Representing Minorities in the City. Education Policies and Minority Incorporation in the Capital Cities of Estonia and Latvia.” Nationalities Papers 42(6): 981–1001.
Ekmanis, Indra. 2021. “Diversity in Daugavpils: Unpacking Identity and Cultural Engagement among Minority School Youth in Eastern Latvia.” In The Russian-Speaking Populations in the Post-Soviet Space, eds. Ammon Cheskin and Angela Kachuyevski. Routledge, 71–96.
Golubeva, Maria. 2010a. “Different History, Different Citizenship? Competing Narratives and Diverging Civil Enculturation in Majority and Minority Schools in Estonia and Latvia.” Journal of Baltic Studies 41(3): 315–29.
Lindemann, Kristina, and Ellu Saar. 2012. “Ethnic Inequalities in Education: Second-Generation Russians in Estonia.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 35(11): 1974–98.
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this topic was arguably neglected for quite many years, but it has begun to gain prominence
Kivi, Laura Helena, Janno Järve, Sten Anspal, Marko Sõmer, and Indrek Seppo. 2021. “Are We There yet? Intergenerational Mobility and Economic Assimilation of Second-Generation Immigrants in Estonia.” Baltic Journal of Economics 21(2): 158–83.
Kroncke, Charles, and Kenneth Smith. 1999. “The Wage Effects of Ethnicity in Estonia.” Economics of Transition 7(1): 179–99.
Mägi, Kadi. 2018. “Ethnic Residential Segregation and Integration of the Russian-Speaking Population in Estonia.” Doctoral dissertation. University of Tartu.
Saar, Ellu, Siim Krusell, and Jelena Helemae. 2017. “Russian-Speaking Immigrants in Post-Soviet Estonia: Towards Generation Fragmentation or Integration in Estonian Society.” Sociological Research Online 22(2): 96–117.
Tammaru, Tiit, Maarten van Ham, Kadri Leetmaa, Anneli Kährik, and Kristiina Kamenik. 2013. “The Ethnic Dimensions of Suburbanisation in Estonia.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 39(5): 845–62.
Van Ham, Maarten, and Tiit Tammaru. 2016. “New Perspectives on Ethnic Segregation over Time and Space. A Domains Approach.” Urban Geography 37(7): 953–62.
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Another cleavage in ethnic relations is represented by media consumption, both mainstream and social media. This section deserves to be expanded, but a preliminary selection is here
Berzina, Ieva. 2018. “Political Trust and Russian Media in Latvia.” Journal on Baltic Security 4(2): 1–8.
Kruks, Sergejs. 2001. “Russian-Language Media: A Foreign Observer?” In Latvijas Mediju Analīze (Daudzveidība III), Riga, 51–70.
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part of this topic could start with the research that has detailed (repeatedly!) the decline of the titular majorities in the Baltic states during the Soviet era, but more interesting would be to look at contemporary demographic changes, including Russians who have left the Baltic states
TO BE ADDED
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starting from the first re-examinations of Soviet political history and memory, through to the Bronze soldier, and down to current-day controversies over monuments (Victory Monument in Riga, Narva tank)
TO BE ADDED.
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there are also studies of non-Russian groups or sub-groups like orthodox Old-Believers
Roht-Yilmaz, Eva-Liisa. 2020. “A Constant Border-Crossing: Conversion and Evangelical Charismatic Christian Identity among the Roma in Estonia and Latvia.” Romani Studies 30(1): 89–113.
Roht-Yilmaz, Eva-Liisa. 2023. “(In) Visibility and the (Unheard) Voice of the Roma in Estonia: The Depiction of Roma History and Culture in Museum Exhibitions.” Journal of Baltic Studies 54(1): 123–43.
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